Drug testing of students by public school officials constitutes a search that must be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment. In Board of Education v. Earls, the Court addressed the lawfulness of warrantless, suspicionless drug testing of students.

One of the most contentious church–state issues in the United States has been the question of the constitutionality of government aid to religious schools.

In Board of Education of the Westside Community Schools v. Mergens, a public school board denied students’ request to form a Christian club and meet after school on school premises.

The blue wall of silence is an unwritten code that prohibits police officers from providing adverse information against fellow officers. In essence, the code states that ‘‘cops don’t tell on cops.’’

Automatic electronic machines for performing word processing, designing and complex calculations. Computers have gained tremendously in popularity with farmers and ranchers since the machine’s introduction in the mid-1970s.

Economic forces—resources, markets, society, institutions/rules, decision-making and space—that explain community change. Each of these six components is described below as the Shaffer Star of community economic development.

Stylized public performances that involve participants in dramatic and sometimes entertaining representations of significant social experiences.

Named after former secretary of commerce Malcolm Baldrige, the award is actually four awards given annually to American companies to recognize their achievements.

Born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, to a seafaring family, Macy made several attempts to open a dry goods store but failed on each of them.

Roger Williams began his religious career as a Puritan minister, and when he arrived in Massachusetts in 1630 he was initially well received.

The Blaine amendment was a proposed 1876 amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

In the fourth volume of his famous Commentaries on the Laws of England, published in 1769, William Blackstone argued that freedom of the press under the common law was limited to a prohibition on prior restraints.

Blacklisting is similar to blackballing. As the latter is associated with the placement of a black marble among the white ones in a bag, signifying that the applicant to a club has been denied membership by a single member, a blacklist is a powerful tool wielded by employers that denies the possibility of work to anyone whose name has been placed on a specific list. 

Perry was tried and found guilty of the misdemeanor assault of a fellow inmate. When he exercised his statutory right to a new trial under North Carolina law, the prosecutor charged him with felony assault for the same conduct that had been previously charged as a less serious offense.

Bivens held, for the first time, that a federal court may hold individual government agents liable for money damages for violating a person’s Fourth Amendment rights.

Birth control is the generic term to describe methods used to limit the number of children. These methods fall into two main categories: those that try to prevent conception, and those that terminate an embryo or fetus.

John Armor Bingham, an Ohio lawyer, was a prominent figure in American politics and government in the latter half of the nineteenth century. He participated in many of the key events surrounding and shortly after the Civil War.

The structure of the American Bill of Rights reflects its eighteenth-century origins. The framers of the Constitution did not include a bill of rights because they honestly believed that one was unnecessary.

The Constitution of 1787 did not contain a bill of rights, although it did have some protections for some civil liberties. The original Constitution prohibited ex post facto laws and bills of attainder, preserved the right of a jury trial in criminal cases, and banned religious tests for officeholding.

State constitution making began during the Revolution. By 1787, when delegates from twelve of the original thirteen states (Rhode Island never sent any delegates) met in Philadelphia to write the national constitution, eleven of the first thirteen states had written constitutions.

A bill of attainder imposes punishment on specific individuals or members of a group through an act taken by the legislature rather than a judicial trial.

Francis Biddle, the scion of a family that emigrated to America in the early seventeenth century, attended private schools, including Harvard College, from which he graduated cum laude, and the Harvard Law School, where he received an LL.B. in 1911.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in America, there was homogeneity among Americans in that the majority were Protestant Christians, albeit of varied denominations.

To speak with precision of the Bible’s influence on American civil liberties is impossible because of its pervasive general presence in American culture during important formative periods of its history and jurisprudence.